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一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms

1． Broad and narrow transcription

【答案】 Broad and narrow transcription: In broad transcription, one letter symbol is used for one sound. In narrow transcription , there are diacritics added to the one letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.

2． Idiolect

【答案】 Just as every speech community has a dialect, every speaker has his own pet words and expressions and special way of expressing his ideas in language. This language variety of individual users is called “idiolect”

3． Textual function

【答案】 Textual function : The textual function is one of the three meta-functions language is composed of. It refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences.

4． CAI and CAL

【答案】 Computer-assisted instruction （CAI ） means the use of a computer in a teaching program. This includes:

a. A teaching program which is presented by a computer in a sequence. The student responds on the computer , and the computer indicates whether the responses are correct or incorrect.

b. The use of computers to monitor student progress, to direct students into appropriate lessons, material , etc. This is also called computer-managed instruction.

Parallel to CAI , there is CAL （Computer-Assistant Learning ） . The former aims at seeing educational problems on the part of the teacher, whereas the latter emphasizes the use of a computer in both teaching and learning in order to help the learner achieve educational objectives. The first kind of CAL programs which were developed reflected principles similar to programmed instruction. The computer leads the student through learning task step-by-step, asking questions to check comprehension. Depending on the studenfs response, the computer gives the student further practice or progresses to new material （see branching ）. In more recent CAL courseware students are able to interact with the computer and perform higher-level tasks while exploring a subject or problem.

5． Embedding

【答案】 It refers to the inclusion of a clause within a phrase or another clause, or of a phrase into another phrase. An example of embedded clauses is: What I do is none of your business. （Nominal clause embedded as subject of another clause）

6． Displacement

Language can be used to refer to what is present, what is absent, what happens at present, 【答案】

what happened in the past, what will happen in the future or what happens in a far-away place. This property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place. For example , we can talk about Sapir, who is already dead; we can even talk about next week, which is in the future.

7． Subordinate construction

【答案】 Subordinate constructions are one of the two subtypes of endocentric constructions. Those in which there is only one head , with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent , are subordinate constructions.

8． Foregrounding

【答案】 This term is meant for what is unusual, attractive, unconventional, salient. In literature, foregrounding is often achieved through unconventional expressions which attract the readers9 attention. The main manifestations of foregrounding are deviation and parallelism.

二、Essay-question

9． State about ONE of the two topics given below （ minimally 200 words ）

（1）In English, the plurality of countable nouns can be represented in several forms, or suffixes. The following are examples of some of such forms. Are these suffixes of plurality the allomorphs of one and the same morpheme , or are they different morphemes? State the reasons for your answer to the

question.

（2）State about any speech production model that you are familiar with. Use an utterance example to illustrate your understanding of the chosen model and explain how it accounts for the exchange error of 44This is the happiest life of my day”.

【答案】（1） These suffixes of plurality are allomorphs of one and the same morpheme.

Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as dog, bark, cat, but in other instances, a morpheme may have different shapes or phonetic forms.

From the above examples , it is clear that plural sememe in English can be represented by the voiceless /s/ , the voiced /z/, the vowel-consonant structure /i:z/, the diphthong /ai/ found in the word stimuli , the nasal sound /n/ in oxen, and others. Each would be said to be an allomorph of the plural morpheme.

Thus , morpheme, like phoneme, as held by American structuralists, is an abstract unit, but at a different linguistic level. It consists of a sequence of phonemes and either lexical or helps construct grammatical structure. In morphemic transcription, morphemes are put between braces like {}. Take the plural morpheme for example,

it can be expressed in the form ofBut , they are the allomorphs of the same morpheme only in different shapes.

It should be noted that some morphemic forms represent different morphemes and thus have

different sememes. For example , the morphemic shape -s , can express

plurality and

,

person/finiteness

case

Therefore , all the above examples of suffixes are the allomorphs of the same morpheme.

（2） Garrett argued that producing speech is a much more complex matter than it might appear to be from our everyday experience. According to his model, there are altogether five different levels of representation involved in speaking a sentence, and they occur in the following sequence:

①The message-level representation: this is an abstract, pre-linguistic representation of the idea or ideas that the speaker wants to communicate.

②The functional-level representation : this is an outline of the proposed utterance having grammatical structure ; in other words , the slots for nouns , adjectives , and so on are allocated , but there are no actual words to fill the slots.

③The positional-level representation: this differs from the functional level representation in that it incorporates the words of the sentence that is to be produced.

④The phonetic-level representation : this indicates some of the necessary information about the ways in which words in the intended sentence are pronounced.

⑤The articulatory-level representation : this is the final representation , and contains a set of instructions for articulating the words in the sentence in the correct order.

For example , the utterance of “I want to go home now.” shows the different levels of the representations. First, itexpresses the abstract meaning of wishing to go home. Then it has grammatical level and the correct order.

An exchange error occurs when two items within a sentence are swapped as the given example “This is the happiest life of my day”. The correct form should be “This is the happiest day of my life”.

10．Use examples to illustrate different ways to extend syntactic constituents.

【答案】 In this chapter , several ways to extend syntactic constituents are brought under the category of recursiveness , including coordination and subordination , conjoining and embedding , hypotactic and paratactic and so on. Coordination and conjoining are the different names for the same linguistic phenomenon , that is , to use and , but or or to join together syntactic constituents with the same [unction. For instance, the sentence A man got into the car could be extended into a sentence like this “[NP A man , a woman , a boy , a cat and a dog] got into the car”. While subordination and embedding can be understood as the extension of any syntactic constituent by inserting one or more syntactic elements with different functions, into another. I saw the man who had visited you last year is an extended sentence by changing the independent clause The man had visited you last year into a dependent element （here a relative clause）.

However , hypotaxis and parataxis are the two traditional terms for the description of syntactic relations between sentences. In the examples below , the former is hypotactic , while the latter is paratactic :

We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate. He dictated the letter. She wrote it.

11．What is communicative competence? How should we develop it in our foreign lauguage learning?

【答案】 Communicative competence is what a learner knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. Communicative competence includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use