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一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms

1． Bound morpheme

【答案】 Bound morphemes refer to those morphemes that can not occur alone and must appear with at least another morpheme. For example , in the word “careless”，“-less” is a bound morpheme since it could not occur by itself as a word.

2． Cognition

【答案】 Cognition is, in psychology, used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states （such as beliefs, desires and intentions ） and can be understood as information processing , especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved , or processes such as involving knowledge , expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing , including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.

3． phoneme

Phoneme is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic 【答案】

features which can distinguish meaning. For example, in English, is described as a phoneme.

4． Broad and narrow transcription

【答案】 Broad and narrow transcription: In broad transcription, one letter symbol is used for one sound. In narrow transcription , there are diacritics added to the one letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.

5． Achievement test

【答案】 Achievement test is a test which measures how much of a language someone has learned with reference to a particular course of study or program of instruction.

6． Denotation

【答案】 The core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world. In the case of linguistic signs, the denotative meaning is what the dictionary attempts to provide. It is the literal meaning of a word, the dictionary meaning, opposite to connotation.

7． Construal and construal operations

【答案】Construal is the competence to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc. Construal operations are conceptualizing processes applied in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.

8． basic level category

【答案】 Basic level category is the most economical level at which you can find the most relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this level. It is at this level that we conjure up the general gestalt of the category.

二、Essay-question

9． What , in your view , makes a text a text , rather than a series of unconnected utterances? What are the implications of your answer for second language teaching?

【答案】 The factor to distinguish connected texts which make sense from those which do not is usually described as coherence. Coherence is traditionally described as the relationships that link the ideas in a text to create meaning for the readers, apart from cohesive devices. It should be noticed that cohesion by itself would not be sufficient to enable us to make sense of what read or hear; it is quite easy to create a highly cohesive text which has a lot of connections between the sentences, but which remains difficult to interpret. And coherence , as the invisible net of a text , performs a function of “connectedness” which makes the text interpretable to people.

Regarding the importance of coherence to a whole text, it seems necessary for a teacher of SFL to help students develop coherence in writing. Research has found that in their writing, ESL/EFL students focus almost exclusively on the word and sentence levels rather than the level of the whole discourse, that is , textual coherence. A pedagogical focus on coherence can shift students' attention from sentence-level grammar to discourse features such as textual structuring and propositional unity, which are crucial to creating meaning in texts. Indeed, helping students improve the coherence of their writing ought to be a significant aspect of L2 writing instruction.

To help students focus on coherence in writing , it is essential that teachers have a thorough understanding of what makes a text coherent. As is shown in the composition text books , it seems common to regard coherence simply as connectedness between sentences , use of explicit cohesive devices at the paragraph level, and use of connective devices such as pronouns, repetitive structures, and transitional markers. However , coherence should not be narrowed in terms of sentence-level connectedness and paragraph unity rather than discourse unity.

Thus , to help students create coherence in their writing, it is necessary for teachers to pay more attention in the broader sense of coherence.

10．How does Halliday relate the functions performed by language to its structures?

【答案】 According to Halliday, structure is the outward form of the system, which lies behind the former. Structure , therefore , is less abstract , and closer to the “surface”. B y studying the constituency structure of grammar , it is assumed that the semantic system above it could become plausible. In the constituency structure , elements are recognized with reference to their functions in relation to the whole. Therefore, in 4

This step is followed by labeling, which is to reveal the specific function of that element in relation to the whole. For example, by labeling “the huge tiger” a functional label: “Subject”，we get to know the interpersonal function that element plays. It is through these two steps the structures are related to the functions performed by language.

11．Why do you think that, all other things being equal, women use more standard variants of stable sociolinguistic variables than men?

【答案】 Language is a social, value-loaded practice, which reflects an intricate network of social, been explained in terms of a great political, cultural, and age relationships within a society.

Womens speech closely approaches the standard variety than the speech of men , this has consciousness of status on the part of women. Women are more usually more status-conscious than men in the English-speaking world, they are aware of their low status in society and, as a result, use more standard speech forms in their attempt to claim equality or achieve high social status. In a sense, they are up in arms against men's society. The status of men has been traditionally defined by their occupation and wealth, while women have had to find other ways of establishing their position and one of these has been their speech.

A second explanation relates to the ways in which society treats women. Women are expected to behave better than men, traditionally, just as society has been harsher on women with regard to such vices as promiscuity and drunkenness，a better standard of language may have been required.

A third explanation is that, by using standard or polite forms, a woman is trying to protect her face. In other words , a woman claims more status in society. Her greater use of standard forms may also imply that she does not attend solely to her own face needs but also to those of the people she is interacting with, thus avoiding disagreement and seeking agreement and rapport.

12．Disambiguate the following sentences, using the tree diagram with labels or analyzing their syntactic structures.

（1）Times flies like an arrow.

（2）We got down from the duck.

（3）Old men and women will be served first.

（4）John passed the hammer and saw through the window.

（5）Who would you like to visit?

【答案】（1）

（2）

（a ）Th e word “down” could be seen as an adverbial, which means “from the higher position to a lower one”.

（b ）The word “down” could be also seen as a noun, which means “the fluffy feathers forming the first plumage of a young bird”.

（3）