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一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms

1． Relational opposites

【答案】 This is a type of antonymy , in which the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. For example, “buy/sell” is such a pair. X buys something from Y means Y sells something from X.

2． MT

【答案】 It refers to machine translation, the use of machine （usually computers） to translate texts from one natural language to another

3． Componential analysis

【答案】 It refers to a semantic approach which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components , or semantic features. For example , the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE.

4． Minimal pairs

The two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs 【答案】

in the same place in the string. For example，the English words bear and pear constitute a minimal pair as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /b/ and /p/.

5． Concordance

【答案】 The computer has the ability to search for a particular word , sequence of words , or perhaps even a part of speech in a text. The computer can also retrieve all examples of a particular word. It can also calculate the number of occurrences of a certain word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered. We may also be interested in sorting the data in some way—for example, alphabetically on words occurring in the immediate context of the word. This is usually referred to as concordance.

6． Locutionary Act, Illocutinary Act and Perlocutionary Act

【答案】 According to Austin , a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking.

A locutionary act is the uttering of words, phrases, and clauses, which conveys meaning by giving out meaningful sounds. Therefore, when somebody says „„Morning‟‟，we can ask a question like “What did he do?‟‟，and the answer could be “He offered a greeting.”

An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker‟s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. Therefore, for the same example，we can say “He meant it as a greeting”.

A perlocutionary act is the effect of the utterance. Thus，by saying “Morning!” the speaker has made it clear that he wants to keep friendly relations with the hearer.

7． Functional Sentence Perspective （FSP ）

【答案】 It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to art analysis of utterances （or texts） in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.

8． Language acquisition

【答案】 It refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations.

二、Essay-question

9． Illustrate the ways of lexical change.

【答案】 Lexical change includes invention, blending, abbreviation, acronym, back-formation, analogical creation, borrowing, compound and derivation.

a.Coinage : it is the invention of totally new terms. The most typical sources are invented trade names of one company‟s produ ct that become general terms for any version of that product. Such as Kleenex ，Teflon and Xerox.

b.Borrowing : it is the taking over of words from other languages. The English language has adopted a vast number of words from other languages，such as encore, which is borrowed from French.

c.Compounding : it is the process of a joining of two separate words to produce a single form. For example , “fingerprint” is composed of “finger” and “print”.

d.Blending : blending is typically accomplished by jointing part of one word to the other whole word or other part of the word. For example, the word smog is formed by combing parts of two words “smoke” and “fog”.

e.Clipping : it occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form. Common example is like ad （“advertisement”）.

f.Backformation : it is a specialized type of word formation in which new words are coined from already existing words by “subtracting‟‟ an affix thought to be part of the old word. For example, the noun television first came into use and then the verb televise was created from it.

g.Analogical creation. It refers to the phenomenon that a new word or a new phrase is coined by analogy between a newly created one and an existing one. For example, „„marathon‟‟ appeared at the First Olympic Games and by analogy modem English created such words as “telethon”，“talkthon”.

h.Acronyms : some new words, known as acronyms, are formed form the initial letters of a set of other words. These can remain essentially “alphabetisims” such as CD （“compact disk”）where the pronunciation consists of the set of letters. More typically, acronyms are pronounced as single words, as in NATO （“North Atlantic Treaty Organization”）.

i.Derivation : it is the process of forming new words by adding prefixes, infixes or suffixes to the root. For example, the prefix un- is added to pleasant to form “unpleasant ” the suffix -able-is used to form “predictable”

10．What kind of linguistic phenomenon can you identify in the following dialogue? Define , analize and explain the phenomenon.

甲：上车请买票。

乙：三张天安门。

甲：您拿好。

【答案】 This conversation consists of the linguistic phenomenon which is called the “Cooperative Principle”，proposed and formulated by P. Grice , based on such a pragmatic hypothesis that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible to carry on talk. It goes as follows:

Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:

The maxim of quantity

a ）Make your contribution as informative as is required （for the current purpose of the exchange）. b ）Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

The maxim of quality

a ）Do not say what you believe to be false.

b ）Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

The maxim of relation

Be relevant.

The maxim of manner

a ）Avoid obscurity of expression.

b ）Avoid ambiguity.

c ）Be brief （avoid unnecessary prolixity） •

d ）Be orderly.

There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle. For example , in this conversation , the speaker may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like “ 三张天安门” in response to a question. Although it is typically “more informative than is required” in the context, it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said （i.e. the speaker knows the answer）. This typical reaction （i. e. there must be something “special” here） of listeners to any apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature. When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect. In this way, we can convey more than is literally said.

11．In informal speech , people often omit sentence subjects because they are commonly understood. What are the omitted subjects in the following two sentences? Why do people know that these are the correct subjects?

a.Hope you like everything here.

b.Just imagine what has just happened here.

【答案】 The omitted subject in sentence a is “I ” and the omitted subject in sentence b is usually “You”. This is a matter of sentence comprehension in language comprehension. Psycholinguists have proposed principles interpreting sentence comprehension with respect to the grammatical constraints. The most popular principle is “Minimal attachment” which defines “structurally simpler”，and it claims that structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension.

In this view , the sentence processor constructs a single analysis of a sentence and attempts to interpret it. The first analysis is the one that requires the fewest applications of grammatical rules to attach each incoming word into the structure being built; it is the automatic consequence of an effort to get some analysis constructed as soon as possible. In the first sentence, when “hope” as a verb is used to