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一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms

1． Audiolingual method

【答案】 Audiolingual method refers to the teaching of a second language through imitation , repetition , and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed.

2． The London School of Linguistics

【答案】 The London School generally refers to the kind of linguistic scholarship in England. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was J.R. Firth.

3． Metonymy

【答案】 Metonymy is a figure of speech used in rhetoric in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by 也e name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept. For instance , “Washington ”，as the capital of the United States, can be used as a metonym （an instance of metonymy） for the United States government.

4． Concordance

【答案】 The computer has the ability to search for a particular word , sequence of words , or perhaps even a part of speech in a text. The computer can also retrieve all examples of a particular word. It can also calculate the number of occurrences of a certain word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered. We may also be interested in sorting the data in some way—for example, alphabetically on words occurring in the immediate context of the word. This is usually referred to as concordance.

5． bound root

Bound root refers to the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total 【答案】

loss of identity, and this base form could not occur alone, such as “-ceive” in “receive”.

6． Functional Sentence Perspective （FSP ）

【答案】 It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to art analysis of utterances （or texts） in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.

7． cohort model

【答案】 The cohort model is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognition postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed , candidates that are no

longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input- the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner.

8． Applied linguistics

【答案】 It is a branch of linguistics which studies the application of linguistics in reality. For example , there are studies on multilingualism, language acquisition, first and second language teaching and learning.

二、Essay-question

9． List different types of Speech presentation and Thought presentation.

【答案】（1） Speech presentation:

Direct speech （DS ） : With the direct speech, what the character said is in its fullest form and with quotation marks.

Indirect speech （IS ） : The propositional content of what the speaker said is presented, but it is not stated in the original words.

Narrator’s representation of speech acts （NRSA ） : We don’t know what the speaker said, and all we know is that he used the speech act of doing something. It can be regarded as a summary of a longer piece of discourse and give more background information than indirect speech.

Narrator’s representation of speech （NRS ） : It is a sentence which merely tells us that speech occurred , and which does not even specify the speech act involved.

（2） Thought presentation : The categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech.

Direct thought （DT ） : DT tends to be used for presenting conscious, deliberative thought.

Free indirect thought （FIT ）: It refers to a kind of thought presentation between DT and IT, which is certainly not DT，but takes on some features of the thoughts in the character’s mind.

10．Is it possible to separate semantics and pragmatics? Why or why not? What are the implications of your answer for second language teaching?

【答案】 Though both semantics and pragmatics have to do with the meaning of language, and link language to the world , we think it is possible to separate semantics and pragmatics in linguistic study. Semantics is the study of literal meaning of linguistic expressions, particularly meaning of words, phrases and sentences. In using the term sense rather than reference, the focus of semantics is on the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language. Pragmatics starts from the observation that people use language to accomplish many kinds of acts, broadly known as speech acts thus it is the study of how to do things with words or of the meaning of language in context. This kind of meaning in pragmatics usually refers to as speaker’s meaning , utterance meaning , or contextual meaning. Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. Thus the distinction between semantics and pragmatics is clear: the former is more closely related to the words used , the more constant , inherent side of meanings ; the latter is more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or something extra.

The first implication for second language study involves the appropriate use of the target language. The teaching of a foreign language in a classroom involves two types of instruction: one is informational and analytical and can be diagrammed on the axis of general semantic information about the language. But language learning also has a crucially important skill component, which involves the development

of the ability to use the language, actively through speaking and writing and passively through listening and reading. This is the pragmatic turn in second language teaching. The language use should be analyzed in relation to the context of communication, and that language teaching and learning should focus on the appropriate use of the target language, oral and written, according to situational and wider social context.

The second implication is concerned with vocabulary learning and translation. The learning of second language’s vocabularies involves the understanding and memory of their meanin gs. Since the differences between the first and second language’s culture , there may be no corresponding meaning underlying the same sayings. Teachers should explain the different usage or implication of the target language’s items. This is of much importance for cross-cultural translation practices.

11．In the history of modem linguistic study of language, various schools have been founded.What are they?

【答案】 （1） The traditional grammar school attempt to lay down universally valid rules to show how a language ought to be used. It is prescriptive rather than descriptive.

（1）An important outgrowth of descriptive linguistics was a theory known as structuralism developed by American Structuralist School. The influential figure in this school is American linguist Leonard Bloomfield （1887 〜 1949 ） , who was strongly influenced by behaviourism.

（2）The Transformational-Generative School is developed by Noam Chomsky in the middle of 1950s with the publication of his book Syntactic Structures. Chomsky was strongly against Bloomfield’s behaviourist psychology and empiricism and adopted cognitive psychology and rationalism.

（3）The Prague School is well-known, for its contribution to phonology and its functional analysis to language. The approach that Prague School linguists use is based on a combined theory between structuralism and functionalism. The most influential scholar is Trubetzkoy , who distinguished the concepts between the phonetic and phonological analysis of sounds , the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features.

（4）The London School was founded by John Firth （1890 〜1960） . Central to his work is his contextual theory of meaning.

（5）Influenced by Firth’s ideas, M.A.K. Halliday distinguished linguistic behavior potential from actual linguistic behavior. Halliday developed Systemic Linguistics or Functional Grammar which is concerned with language as an instrument of social interaction rather than as a system that is viewed in isolation.

12．What is the relationship between language and literature?

【答案】 Literature is closely related to language. Generally speaking, it is marked by careful use of language, such as creative metaphors, elegant syntax, and so on. It reaches to human beings mostly via language. It could be seen as a language in use. The existence of literature owes a lot to language. The language used in literature is quite often different from language used in other fields , such as everyday use.

In linguistics, the term “genre” is used to refer not only to types of literary works but also to any identifiable type of discourse , whether literary or not. Therefore , literature could be viewed as a particular range of genres or discourse types; that is, as a particular subset of the repertory of genres, existing in a given speech community. For example, written literature is discourse that may be read at a far distance in time a place from its origin. More generally speaking, literary discourse has many other general linguistic characteristics , such as certain kinds of phonological , syntactic , and semantic phenomena , occuring with much greater frequency in literature than in other kinds of discourse.