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一、Fill-in-the-blanks

1． In Halliday＇s Systemic Grammar, a system is a list of things between which it is possible to choose. So they are meanings , which the grammar can distinguish. The items in a system are called______.

【答案】options

【解析】系统就是存在于语法中的一系列选择。系统语法的目的是要说明语言作为系统的内部底层关系，它是 与意义相关联的可供人们不断选择的若干子系统组成的系统网络。

2． Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, _____language.

【答案】vernacular

【解析】凡属标准语之外的那些语言变体都被叫做非标准语或本地语。

3． ______，bom in 1928, is all American linguist , educator , and political activist. He is the founder of transformational-generative grammar, a system that revolutionized modem linguistics.

【答案】Norman Chomsky

【解析】乔姆斯基，生于1928年，是美国著名的语言学家，教育家。他是转换生成语法的创始人。

4． The sound /k/ can be described with 'Voiceless, _____, stop ”.

【答案】velar

【解析】/k/是清音，软腭音，爆破音。

5． Predication analysis is to break down predications into their constituents:_____ .

【答案】Argument ; predicate

【解析】述谓结构分析把述谓结构分析分割为论元和谓词。其中谓词是控制论元的主要要素。

6． Linguistics is the scientific study of_____.

【答案】language

【解析】语言学是对语言的科学研究。

二、Explain-the-fllowing-terms

7． Open-class words

【答案】 Open-class words refer to words whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited and with the emergence of new ideas , inventions , and so on ; new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. For example , nouns , verbs , and adjectives all belong to this class.

8． Presupposition

【答案】 A presupposition is a proposition （expressed in a sentence） that is assumed to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence. For example , John didn't pass chemistry presupposes that John took chemistry.

9． division of pragmatic labor

【答案】 Horn observes that the Q-based and R-based principles often directly collide and suggests the resolution comes from a division of pragmatic labor，which reads “The use of a marked （relatively complex and/or prolix） expression when a corresponding unmarked （simpler ，less “effortful”）alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message （one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed） .

10．Interlanguage

【答案】 It refers to the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language. It’s a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language, and imperfect compared with the target language, but not mere translation from the learner^ native language. For example, when the Chinese student is learning English, he may make errors like “to touch the society”.

11．Cross-cultural communication

【答案】 Cross-cultural communication is an exchange of ideas , information , etc , between persons from different cultural backgrounds. The cultural conventions of the participants may widely different , and misinterpretation and misunderstanding can easily arise , even leading to a total communication breakdown.

三、Essay-question

12．Can you make a brief introduction to Systemic-Functional Grammar?

【答案】 Stemming from Firth’s theories in the London School, Halliday’s Systemic-Functional （SF ） Grammar is a socially oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the 20th century , exerting a strong impact on various disciplines related to language , such as language teaching , sociolinguistics , discourse analysis , stylistics , and machine translation.

It actually has two components : Systemic Grammar and Functional Grammar. They are two inseparable parts for an integral framework in Halliday^ linguistic inquiry. Systemic Grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. And this network consists of subsystems from which language users make choices. Functional Grammar aims to reveal

that language is a means of social interaction, based on the assumption that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably determined by the users or functions which they serve.

13．MORPHEME is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme? Can a morpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole?

【答案】 As a matter of fact, morpheme is both a grammatical concept and a semantic one. for instance , we can recognize that English word-forms such as talks , talker , talked and talking must consist of one element talk , and a number of other elements such as -s , -er , -ed , -ing. All these elements are described as morphemes. The definition of morpheme is “the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content”. We would say that the word reopened in the sentence The pglice reopened the investigation consists of three morphemes. One minimal unit of meaning is open, another minimal unit of meaning is re- （meaning again） , and a minimal unit of grammatical function is -ed （indicating past tense） . Therefore, we are in a position to conclude that those which can stand by themselves as single words , e.g. open , are semantic concepts , and those which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, e.g. re-, -ist, -ed, -s , are grammatical concepts.

As we know , each one of the meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a phoneme. An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes.

The relation between morpheme and phoneme is also of two fold feature , viz. one-to-one , one-to-more. As with the former type, one-to-one, re- is the kind of morpheme that always consists of two phonemesas for the latter type, one-to-more relation, a typical example would be the plural morpheme that follows a noun or a

verb. after a noun can be pronounced in three ways ,

viz. and as in locks, bags, and watches; after a verb can also be pronounced in three ways,

viz. and as in stops, drags, and catches.

Seen from an integrative perspective, a morpheme and a phoneme, indeed, can form an organic whole , as the number of the sound of each morpheme cannot be unlimited.

14．In interpreting utterances such as（1）and （2），the hearer generally treats the events described in the two sentences in each group as causally related even though such relationship is not encoded in the meanings of the sentences. That is . the hearer tends to think that Helen fell on the ground because of Torn's pushing and that the vase broke because it was dropped. Explain why.

（1）Tom pushed Helen. Helen fell on the ground.

（2）Peter dropped the vase. It broke.

【答案】 The phenomenon described can be illustrated by the theory of cohesion and coherence in discourse analysis , especially the conjunctive kind of cohesive relation. Text processing requires inferences for establishing coherence between successive sentences. The achievement of coherence partly relies on the cohesive relationships within and between the sentences. Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another.

It is realized partly through grammatical device and partly through lexical cohesion. Conjunction is one of the grammatically cohesive relations. It is based on the assumption that there are forms of systematic relationships between sentences in the linguistic system. Conjunction can be realized by some conjunctive words and some adverbs , such as so , but , furthermore , and so on. But in fact , the conjunctive relation between the discourses need not be realized by conjunctive words, as can be seen in